Who is Included When We Say First-Generation? A conversation with Dr. Robert Toutkoushian

As students across the country begin or continue their studies this fall, colleges will once again celebrate, serve, and support students who are the first in their family to attend college, commonly referred to as ‘first-generation students.’ But what does first-generation really mean? 

There is no single definition. Depending on the criteria used, the percentage of first-generation students can vary from less than one in four to more than half. Federally funded programs such as TRIO define first-generation students as those whose parents did not earn a bachelor’s degree, a broader measure that counts 54 percent of undergraduates. Some institutions, such as those the California Community College system, use a narrower measure—students whose parents never enrolled in education beyond high school—which includes only 22 percent of undergraduates nationwide. These distinctions can determine who is eligible for targeted supports such as scholarships and advising, and whose experiences are visible in data used to inform institutional, state, and federal policy.  

To better understand this issue, we spoke with Dr. Robert K. Toutkoushian, Professor of Higher Education in the University of Georgia’s Louise McBee Institute of Higher Education, whose research explores different definitions of first-generation status. 

This conversation has been edited for length and clarity.  

Q: What sparked your interest in studying first-generation student issues? 

I’m a first-generation student myself, so I’ve always been curious whether others with similar backgrounds faced the same kinds of challenges that I did. But as I began digging into the topic, I realized how much the definition of first-generation students varies and how much that impacts what we know about this population. The variation can be confusing, not just for researchers and institutions, but for students themselves. Many students are unsure whether they “count” as first-generation and that uncertainty can keep them from accessing programs or supports they’re eligible for.  

Q: What are the implications of using different definitions across research and practice?  

They’re significant. Some colleges define first-generation students as those whose parents never attended college, while others include students whose parents attended but did not earn a bachelor’s degree. Two-year institutions usually base their definition on whether a parent has earned an associate’s degree, whereas four-year institutions typically use a bachelor’s degree as their benchmark.  

These choices affect how and which students are served. A narrower definition may leave out students who still face real barriers, while a broader one may stretch limited resources too far. Analyzing the data across different definitions tells a clear story: first-generation students are less likely than their peers with college-educated parents to aspire to college, apply, enroll, and graduate. That consistent pattern underscores the need for stronger, better-targeted support. 

Q: Your research used national data to examine definitions of first-generation students. What did you learn about student outcomes and what stood out the most? 

My co-authors and I used the Education Longitudinal Study (ELS:2002) to examine how different definitions of first-generation status correlate with student outcomes including college aspiration, application, enrollment, and graduation.  

Across every definition we tested, students whose parents never enrolled in any college had the lowest rates of college aspiration, application, enrollment, and graduation. Students whose parents had some college but no degree performed somewhat better, while students with a parent who completed a degree had the highest outcomes. The gaps were especially wide for enrollment and graduation outcomes. First-generation students’ families tend to have lower incomes and lower wealth, factors that can become especially important later in college, which can help explain why the gaps are wider for enrollment and graduation than aspirations and applications.  

Q: What are some promising approaches you’ve seen to better support first-generation students and how has awareness of their unique needs changed over time?   

More research is needed to understand support programs for first-generation students. First-generation students can benefit from targeted information and guidance. That might take the form of proactive text message check-ins, specialized advising, or extra support applying for financial aid. It also means reaching students early in K-12 education since research shows decisions about whether to attend college are often made years in advance.  

I am encouraged by the progress I’ve seen in the last decade. There’s now a new research center, a new academic journal, and far more awareness among scholars and practitioners about the unique barriers first-generation students face. That visibility alone is a big step forward. 

To learn more about where first-generation students enroll and how their outcomes compare to their peers, read What NPSAS and BPS Tell Us About Student Veterans, Parents, First-Generation Student Experiences.